What this lesson teaches
I can judge how local states, the superpowers and the UN shaped how conflicts developed over time.
Syllabus 9174, Paper 1, Theme III, Learning Outcomes. evaluate the roles of different actors in the development of conflicts over time
I can judge how well diplomacy, peacekeeping and peace talks managed conflicts.
Syllabus 9174, Paper 1, Theme III, Learning Outcomes. evaluate the effectiveness of conflict management
Make a guess
In 1965 India and Pakistan fought a short war. What do you think the 1966 Tashkent Declaration did?
- Restored the old lines without settling Kashmir.
- Gave Kashmir to Pakistan in return for peace.
- Settled the Kashmir dispute with a new border.
Show the answer
Restored the old lines without settling Kashmir.
Soviet mediation ended the war, and both sides withdrew to their earlier positions. The core dispute remained.
Pakistan's attempt to spark a revolt in Kashmir led to a short, inconclusive war. Outside pressure brought a ceasefire, and Soviet mediation restored the old lines.
By the 1960s the superpowers were involved. Pakistan had joined US-led alliances in 1954-1955 and received American arms. The USSR backed India and vetoed UN resolutions on Kashmir that India opposed.
India's defeat by China in the 1962 border war made it look weak. Pakistan's leaders, President Ayub Khan and Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, believed they had a short window before India rearmed.
In August 1965 Pakistan sent armed infiltrators into Indian Kashmir, hoping to spark a local revolt. The revolt did not happen. In September India crossed the international border towards Lahore, and a wider war followed.
Neither side could win quickly. The USA cut off arms to both countries, which hurt Pakistan most. The UN Security Council demanded a ceasefire, which took effect on 23 September 1965.
The Soviet premier, Alexei Kosygin, hosted talks at Tashkent. In January 1966 both sides agreed to withdraw to their pre-war positions. The Kashmir question itself was left open.
- Sino-Indian War
- 1962: India defeated by China.
- 1965 ceasefire
- 23 September 1965.
- Tashkent Declaration
- January 1966: back to pre-war positions.
Worked example: Assessing the superpowers' role in 1965
Did the superpowers make the war worse or end it?
- Before: US arms raised Pakistan's confidence.
- During: the US arms embargo limited both sides.
- After: Soviet mediation at Tashkent.
- Limit: neither superpower could solve Kashmir.
Watch out for this
The Tashkent Declaration settled the Kashmir dispute.
It restored the pre-war positions and ended the fighting, but it did not settle who should control Kashmir.
Check your understanding
Why did Pakistan launch the operation in August 1965?
- India had invaded East Pakistan, and Pakistan wanted to draw Indian troops away.
- It hoped to spark a revolt in Kashmir while India was weak after 1962.
- The UN had ordered a vote that Pakistan wanted to force.
Show the answer
It hoped to spark a revolt in Kashmir while India was weak after 1962.
Right. The revolt did not happen.